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Anglo-Saxon England VIII
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From Cnut to Harold II
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The Reign of Cnut (1016-1035)
 | King Cnut was a Viking and is celebrated in early Danish
histories as a great warrior and conqueror; but he was also a shrewd
statesman and a convinced Christian. It is ironic that he is
popularly remembered mainly for his
attempt to hold back the waves. |
| Cnut's military skills were shown in his invasion of
England in 1016; his statesmanship in his willingness to accept a
treaty dividing England with Edmund Ironside. Ironside was allowed
to keep Wessex south of the Thames, but died November 1016.
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Cnut's first "wife" was
Ælfgifu of Northampton,
an English woman. Their union was not recognized by the Church,
and Cnut later (1017) married Emma (the widow of Ethelred) |
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Cnut divided his attention between England and
Scandinavia; between 1019 and 1028 he led four separate
expeditions there. |
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Cnut brought Norway under his control in 1028
and placed his "wife"
Ælfgifu and
their son Swein in charge of it. Their rule was extremely unpopular, and the Norwegians revolted
and made Magnus I king (1033).
[Cnut's
realm] |
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After his initial invasion, Cnut basically
respected English rights and ruled in cooperation with native nobles,
even though he did install a number of his Scandinavian followers in
positions of power. |
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Cnut divided England into four districts -
Mercia, Northumbria, East Anglia and Wessex. Cnut made the Englishman Godwin an earl
in 1018, and placed him in charge of Wessex, while another English
noble, Leofric, was appointed in Mercia. Godwin himself and his sons,
Swegen and Harold, wielded great power because of the family's
extensive landholdings.
Rivalry soon grew between Godwin and Leofric and their families.
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A coin of Cnut, c. 1025
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Cnut expanded his control to the north-west of
England, seizing territory from the kingdom of Strathclyde as it fell
apart following the death of Owen the Bald (1018). (The
remainder of Strathclyde was taken by Malcolm II, King of Alba,
for his grandson Duncan, but he recognized Cnut as overlord). |
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Cnut preserved the existing system of local
government by shires, and hundreds (or wapentakes in the north). In addition in some parts of the
country, there was a further division into "tithings" - groups of ten
households with a responsibility to regulate and control all its
members to prevent criminal activity. This system was known as
"frankpledge". |
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Cnut also continued to levy Danegeld, but now used the funds to pay for disciplined military forces
(housecarls); the tax became known as "heregeld." |
Later Anglo-Saxon Society
| Anglo-Saxon England grew more prosperous and populous as
agricultural techniques improved. The introduction of water mill
made the grinding of grain easier - the chief in use were wheat,
oats, rye, and barley.
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In some areas, strip-farming was introduced:
pastureland was held in common but each individual grew arable
crops on a number of scattered strips across a large field. [Anglo-Saxon strip
farms aimed at distributing land of different fertility and
accessibility fairly. Modern strip-farming is a conservation
technique to prevent soil erosion by alternating strips of
closely sown crops like hay, wheat, or other small grains with
strips of row crops like corn, soybeans, cotton or sugar
beets]. |
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| Towns began to develop during the tenth century as the economy
expanded with the development of a system of markets and fairs
across all England. Their chief social institution was the "guild" -
these not only regulated standards of workmanship and terms of trade
but paid for the burial of their members and for any criminal fines. |
| Anglo-Saxon society continued to be hierarchical, with slaves at
the bottom of the social order. Above the slave was the gebur who held
land in return for extensive labor services. Geneats were the cream of peasant society; they
were also subject to an lord but had often received their land
as a gift, and had only minor duties of service. |
| Although hierarchical, England was not a fixed caste system; it
was possible to rise in the social order and achieve noble status.
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At the top of the social scale
were bishops & ealdormen - who presided over the shire.
(Although ealdormen came to rule two or more shires, and
towards the end of the period, sheriffs took command in the
shires). Ealdormen also raised and commanded troops for the king. |
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| After the first conversion of the Saxons,
churches were not common. Each village had a cemetery and
services were held outside. There were some "minsters" - larger
churches often at monastic communities. During the late Anglo-Saxon period
many thegns and large landowners
founded private chapels that became parish churches. Most of these churches
were built of wood, and few have survived intact. |
The round tower of St. Peter's Church in
Thorington; although restored it still contains Saxon stonework. |
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Private lords acquired the right to try cases
in their own courts. Rights of "sake and soke", often granted by the
king, gave a landowner legal jurisdiction over his tenants and in
particular the right to summon them to his court. |
| Anglo-Saxon kings ruled though a comparatively
sophisticated administration, manned by literate priests. The King's
writ was used to control local authorities.
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There was a national militia or fyrd
that the king could order his magnates to summon to defend the
realm. One soldier was to be supplied by every five hides
(hide = 120 acres) of land. The king also commanded a personal force
of housecarls - full-time warriors armed with spears and
battle-axes. |
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The End of Anglo-Saxon England
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Cnut died in 1035, leaving two sons. The elder, Harold Harefoot (born about 1015), was
the child of Ælfgifu. Harthacnut (born 1018),
Cnut's legitimate child by Emma of Normandy, was probably intended to
succeed in England, but he was absent in Denmark at Cnut's death. |
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Queen Emma and Earl
Godwin wanted Harthacnut (Hardicanute; Hardacnut) to succeed, but Leofric and
other thegns suggested that Harold should become "regent". He and
Ælfgifu set about strengthening their position and finding allies, and
Harold formally took the title of king in 1037.
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Harold I died in 1040 and was succeeded by Harthacnut. Harthacnut desecrated Harold's body, burnt
Worcester when the town objected to high taxes, and betrayed
and murdered Eadwulf, Earl of Northumbria, "under the mask
of friendship." |
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In 1042, Harthacnut "as
he stood at his drink, he fell suddenly to the earth
with a tremendous struggle" and died within days. |
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When Ethelred died in 1016, his sons Edward and
Alfred had settled in Normandy. Alfred, known as the Atheling (Prince of royal
blood), had
returned to England in 1036 (possibly to rival Harthacnut and
Harold). Alfred was captured by Earl Godwin and blinded; he soon after
died of his injuries.
On his father's death Edmund Ironside's son, Edward the Exile (died
1057) had fled to Scandinavia and thence to Hungary, and so was badly
placed to assert a claim to the English throne.
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Magnus of Norway (1024-1047) had made a treaty with
Harthacnut, giving him a claim to the English throne on Harthacnut's
death; but Magnus was too occupied in Denmark, fighting against Swein
Estrithsson, a rival for the Danish crown. |
| Edward (born c. 1003) was the only
viable rival to the house of Cnut, and had returned to England
in 1041. Even so, he had to agree to marry the powerful Earl
Godwin's daughter, Edith, before acceding to the throne in
1042. |
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Edward - known as Edward the Confessor because of his
piety - ruled very cautiously at first,
expelling only a few Danish lords and introducing a few of his own
friends from Normandy - especially into the Church. |
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However, tensions rose steadily between Godwin
and Edward, especially over the unruly conduct of Earl Swegen (Godwin's
eldest son). The issue reached a crisis in 1051-52, but a compromise
was reached before fighting broke out. |
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Swegen died in 1052, and Godwin in 1053, leaving
Godwin's son Harold as the head of the powerful Godwinson family.
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In about 1064 or 1065
Harold was in Normandy; later Norman sources assert that Harold swore to
support William's claim to succeed as King of
England after Edward's death
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Edward died 4 January 1066. Harold
II was recognized as king but his claim was immediately contested
by Harold Hardrada, who was allied with Harold II's own brother, Tostig:
they captured York in the summer of 1066. Harold marched North
and defeated them eight miles outside York at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge, 25 Sept 1066 |
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Harold II was still feasting in celebration of
his victory when he heard that William of Normandy was invading the
South of England. |
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William landed 28 September 1066 and the
Battle of Hastings was fought 14 October
1066. |
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