|
| |
Roman Britain
|
123-3
|
 |
|
Eburacum (or Eboracum) =York; Deva = Chester;
Lindum = Lincoln; Camulodunum = Colchester; Londinium = London.
[Lugdunum Batavorum = Leiden]. |
|
The Roman invasions
 | The Romans first
invaded Britain in 55-54 BC.
The Roman Republic had been
expanding
its territory by conquest for two centuries. |
 |
Military commanders and provincial governors amassed
fortunes from the conquered peoples and then used their wealth and
power to influence the political process back at Rome.
|
 |
Julius Caesar acquired extraordinary resources
by his conquest of Gaul; with these, he guaranteed the loyalty
of his troops and bribed important Romans. His actions were
key to transforming the
Roman Republic into the
Roman Empire. |
|
Claudius placed Aulus Plautius and Vespasian in charge of an army of
c. 40,000 men. Claudius paid a brief visit to Britain (16 days), and -
taking all the credit for the conquest - minted coins celebrating his victory,
and named his son Britannicus.
 |
Britain's part-time warriors were no match for
the better trained and equipped Roman soldiers. British
soldiers possessed no armor that was proof against the Roman
pilum or javelin, nor had they an appropriate tactical
response to the Roman legionaries' disciplined, close-order use
of the short thrusting sword (gladius). |
|
>
|
Initially, Rome occupied only the South-East, but soon expanded North
and West. Caratacus organized resistance in Wales,
but this was suppressed by 60 AD.
| In 61 AD, the western stronghold of Mona (today the Isle of
Anglesey) was overcome.
"On the
shore stood the opposing army with its dense array of armed
warriors, while between the ranks dashed women, in black
attire like the Furies, with hair dishevelled, waving brands.
All around, the Druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and
pouring forth dreadful imprecations, scared our soldiers by
the unfamiliar sight …"
[Cassius Dio, Roman History] |
 |
|
|
A major revolt broke out amongst the Iceni against Roman rule
in 62. Led by the warrior-queen Boudica, the rebels destroyed
the settlements at Londinium (London), Camulodunum (Colchester), and Verulamium (Saint Albans),
before being defeated by the Roman Governor, Suetonius Paulinus.
About 70,000 civilians - mostly Britons - died in the revolt.
|
| Boudica's revolt slowed the Romanization of
Britain considerably. |
Mosaic from Romano-British villa |
Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93) became governor
of Britain in 78. Under his rule, towns were expanded,
fortresses built, and the
road
system started. |
Roman expansion
|
Under Agricola, Roman influence was extended northwards.
In 78 he defeated the Brigantes of Yorkshire --
who under their Queen Cartimandua had earlier been independent allies of Rome.
|
|
Agricola marched as far north as the Grampians in (what is today) northern
Scotland, and somewhere near
them defeated the Caledonians (who outnumbered the Romans 3 to 1) at
the Battle of Mons Graupius (83 AD) (Much later, "Graupius" was mis-read as "Grampius"
- erroneously giving rise to the term "Grampian mountains" or "Grampians").
|
|
Too successful for the tastes of the proud and suspicious Emperor
Domitian (51-96), Agricola was suddenly recalled in 85.
| Pari arrogantia, cum procuratorum suorum
nomine formalem dictaret epistulam, sic coepit: "Dominus et
deus noster hoc fieri iubet. Unde institutum posthac, ut ne
scripto quidem ac sermone cuiusquam appellaretur aliter."
With no less arrogance he [the emperor Domitian] began as
follows in dictating a circular letter in the name of his procurators,
"Our Lord and God bids that this be done." And so the custom arose of henceforth
addressing him in no other way, even in writing or in conversation.
[Suetonius: Lives of the Caesars] |
 |
| |
Domitian (51-96) |
|
|
The need to
station troops in other parts of the Empire led to the
abandonment of the far north, and the northern limit of Roman Britain
was established roughly where England now borders Scotland. |
|
In
122, the Emperor Hadrian visited Britain, and at about the same time the construction of Hadrian's Wall began.
| Hadrian's Wall was about 15 feet high, 10 feet
wide and stretched for 73 miles. Built mainly of stone, there
were also deep ditches on both sides to make approach
difficult. Soldiers were positioned in turrets and castles
along the length of the Wall, |
Hadrian's Wall |
|
|
Hadrian's policies aimed at consolidating the Empire within existing
borders, but his successor, Antoninus Pius was more expansionist. Rome
reoccupied the Scottish lowlands and a new wall was built in 140-143.
It was constructed largely of turf and extended about 37 miles
from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde.
The Romans soon retreated and within half a century, Hadrian's wall
once again marked the northern limit of Empire. |
|
Sources are poor, but evidence suggests that there was invasion from
the North during the early 180's. In its aftermath, many Northern
British cities built walls for their protection.
|
Clodius Albinus |
In 195, civil war erupted between two
candidates for the job of emperor, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus.
The British legions fought for Clodius Albinus, but were
defeated in Gaul by Septimius Severus. |
Septimius Severus |
|
|
The Caledonii and Maeatae tribes gave so much trouble in
the North that Septimius Severus came to Britain to direct their
suppression.
Severus brought with him his wife, Julia Domna and his two refractory
sons, Caracalla and Geta. |
|
Severus died at York in 211, and his elder son, Caracalla, promptly
set about trying to seize sole power. (Both returned to Rome, and
Caracalla had Geta murdered there in December 211). |
|
The written evidence for third century Britain is very poor, but
archaeological evidence suggests that the country was prosperous and
peaceful - for example, new villas were being built and elaborately
decorated.
|
 |
From 260 until 274, Britain was part of the
breakaway "Gallic Empire" established by the usurper Postumus
(?-269).
As well as Britain, the Gallic Empire included Spain and much
of Gaul and Germany. |
|
Britain under Rome
 |
Rome invested considerable resources in the invasion and protection of
Britain - its
occupation
required about 10% of the Roman army.
Permanent forts were linked by a network of level straight
roads that allowed for easy redeployment of troops.
These roads also encouraged trade. |
|
The substantial investment in garrisons and infrastructure was worthwhile
because of Britain's agricultural and mineral wealth. |
|
The
Romans were mining silver in Britain as early as the 40s AD,
and lead production was so plentiful that the Roman government limited
British output to protect mines
in Spain and Gaul. (Lead was used for plumbing fixtures and coffins). |
|
Peace
and trade led to the growth of cities:
| |
 |
| |
Deva was founded in about 60 AD;
it was a military base or castra and was later called
Chester by the locals.
(Colchester and Gloucester carry the same reference to a camp/
castra in their names). |
Eburacum (or Eboracum) was a fortress of the Ninth Legion; it was established about 78 AD. It later became the home of
the Sixth Legion.
The Saxons corrupted the name to "Eoforwic", and the Vikings
turned this into "Jorvik" which eventually became "York".
|
|
|
In the late 50s the Romans established
another base at "Lindon," which they pronounced "Lindum." When
a colony of veterans was established here, it became known as
"Lindum Colonia," and eventually as Lincoln. |
|
|
During the last quarter of the first century AD (75-100), cities
expanded considerably - theatres, amphitheatres, public monuments, baths & market places
were constructed. The Romans were efficient engineers who provided cities
with good water supplies.
Urbanization went alongside Romanization.
Public policy consciously aimed at persuading Britons to adopt
the customs, dress and habits of Romans. |
|
Another sign of wealth and Romanization was the construction of county
villas. These comfortable, heated houses were usually within ten
miles of a town. |
|
The
Second and Third Centuries AD were a time of general prosperity and
the population of Roman Britain reached about 3.5 million by 400 AD.
The ocean protected Britain from the barbarian invasions that ravaged the Roman
provinces of Gaul during the 3rd
Century. |
The Government of Britain
|
Publius Helvius Pertinax (126-193)
Governor of Britain,185-187, and Roman Emperor, 192-193.
|
|
The
head of civil and military government in Britain was a legatus
or governor, but his actions were monitored by a procurator,
who collected taxes and managed the emperors' personal assets. |
|
During the 3rd Century, Britain was divided into two provinces -
Superior (Upper) and Inferior (Lower) Britannia. |
|
The
army was important as an engine of social mobility and often
intervened in politics. Emperors had to be very careful to keep the
army occupied and satisfied. (It is possible that Hadrian's Wall was
partly constructed in order to keep the army from making mischief).
However, during the 3rd Century the army came to dominate disputes about the
imperial succession. |
|
